Dūš / Kysis

The site of Dūš, known as Kysis in antiquity, is a large town located in the south of the Kharga Oasis, 17.5 km from Šams al-Dīn. The site has been the object of extensive archaeological investigation and is one of the earliest systematically excavated sites in the Western Desert. The current chronology of the site consists of four main phases of occupation: phase 0 (Ptolemaic period, but also including the beginning of the fourth century BCE, based on a demotic ostracon, as well as, among other evidence, the temenos of the brick temple, radiocarbon dated to 787–429 BCE); phase I (1st–2nd centuries CE); phase II (transition period, end of 2nd/beginning of 3rd–end of 3rd/beginning of 4th centuries CE); and phase III (late 3rd/beginning of 4th–beginning of 5th centuries CE), ending with the abandonment of the site in the mid-fifth century CE. Notable features include the structure traditionally designated the ‘Fort’, a temple complex, a residential area (‘the village’), and several necropolises to the north of the settlement. 

The 'Fort' (Kasr)

The most visible and dominant feature of the site, the so-called ‘Fort’, is a mud-brick structure situated west of the stone temple of Isis/Serapis. Despite its name, its architectural characteristics indicate that it is unlikely to have functioned as a conventional defensive structure. Only a limited number of test trenches have so far been opened because of the questionable stability of the building: its walls stand approximately 13 m high and are largely supported by the surrounding sand, whose removal could cause collapse. The limited excavation and considerable complexity of the internal spaces, perhaps consisting largely of magazines, make establishing a relative chronology difficult. The most clearly identifiable chronological feature is the primitive nucleus of the qasr, situated in the south-eastern corner. This so-called ‘old fort’, characterised by yellow bricks, formed the kernel from which the present structure developed. Carbon samples from this structure, as well as from the enclosure of the temple of Serapis, attest to Persian and Ptolemaic occupation. These dates are accompanied by two bronze coins bearing the effigy of Ptolemy II, found in the western passage of the ‘Fort’. 

The visible compartments within the Fort, however, belong to a much later phase of occupation, understood to be contemporary with the use of the space by the Roman army. This military presence is attested by the large number of military ostraca found both in the Fort and in the second courtyard of the temple. There is no papyrological evidence for a Roman military presence at Dūš before the fourth century CE, the period during which the greatest expansion of the settlement appears to have taken place. The departure of the soldiers appears to have been closely connected with the abandonment of the site. Although the monumental appearance of the structure and the documented military presence explain its traditional designation as a fort, the absence of towers and of a strongly defended entrance, together with the rarity of square forts, suggests that it may instead have functioned as a guard post, granary, group of magazines, or combination of these functions, as may also have been the case with the old qasr, constructed some seven to eight centuries before its use by the Roman military. 

Religious Complex

This complex, located at the south-eastern end of the tell, east of the Fort, is one of the principal features of the site. It comprises a stone temple dedicated to Serapis and Isis together with a number of associated annexes, and provides important chronological evidence through its architecture, inscriptions and graffiti. The complex is approached by the main north–south-running dromos, along which the excavated village structures are situated. The first identifiable monumental feature is a pylon built under Trajan, behind which is a back-to-back portico, followed by a first courtyard and a second monumental door built under Hadrian. This door leads into the enclosure surrounding the temple of Serapis and Isis. 

The temple is built in stone over an earlier mud-brick structure of which little is known. Radiocarbon dates from the enclosure indicate Persian and Ptolemaic occupation, while the cartouches found inside the temple indicate that the stone temple was erected under Domitian and that its decoration was completed under Hadrian. Within the same enclosure is an additional courtyard giving access to a sanctuary that appears to have been established partially according to the layout of its own enclosure. 

A comprehensive chronology of the complex is difficult to establish because of the many architectural modifications carried out over an extended period. The first pylon, restored in the early 1990s by Michel Wuttmann, is attributed to Trajan, although it was clearly only the latest in a series of modifications. The monumental door behind it is dated to Hadrian, and its foundation cuts an even earlier foundation. The current temple is likewise built over an earlier mud-brick structure, demonstrating the successive alterations to the complex. From the fourth century CE onwards, several areas of the temple were modified and compartmentalised for reuse in contexts different from their original purpose, including military occupation. It has also been proposed that the temple itself was transformed into an early Christian church. This hypothesis is supported to some extent by Christian graffiti and dipinti, which indicate the decommissioning of the temple. Greek ostraca from the first and second occupation levels, both dating to the end of the fourth century, further attest to rapid alterations of the floors and continued redevelopment of the premises. 

The Village

Excavations in the residential area took place from 1985 until 1990, when four structures, numbered I to IV, were investigated. Three were situated on the eastern side of the north–south-running dromos leading to the temple enclosure, while another was situated on its western side. A campaign in 2008–2009 uncovered an additional house on the western side of the dromos, containing a number of wall paintings. The area appears to have experienced a relatively long period of occupation, with each excavated building displaying several phases of construction and modification. A final phase of agrarian reuse or occupation is consistently represented by deposits of animal feces and fodder. 

Building I

One of the principal structures is Building I, excavated in 1985/86 and originally understood as a domestic building. In its final phases of use, its original plan was substantially modified by the erection of 11 columns in the centre of the building. These were arranged in two parallel north–south rows of five columns each, with an additional column between the rows at the northern end, creating what may be interpreted as a return aisle. Traces of polychrome painted decoration were preserved on two columns, and several arch fragments were also found. A number of loculi were subsequently created, while a low wall in the shape of an arc of a circle was erected in the centre of the space delimited by the columns, resting on columns 3 and 9 and closing the median nave to the north. 

The occupation level associated with the construction of the columns contained a coin of Constantine and a coin struck under Valentinian between 364 and 378, demonstrating the use of the modified space in the second half of the fourth century. The building has been tentatively identified by Ch. Bonnet as a domus ecclesiae. It appears to have been abandoned less than a century later, with ceramics from its final occupation phase dating from the end of the fourth to the middle of the fifth century CE. 

Building IV

Another significant structure is Building IV, particularly room 1. In the north-west corner of this room, a small mud-brick C-shaped construction was uncovered. Stratigraphy identifies it as one of the latest installations in the room. In its centre is a small, almost square oculus formed by four mud-brick walls. Its particular form has been interpreted as resembling an early Christian stibadium or ‘sigma bench’, with a table in the centre. Parallels have been identified at Ismant al-Ḫarāb, Amḥayda, Šams al-Dīn, al-Baǧawāt and Dayr al-Baǧawāt. The feature has consequently been regarded as particularly important evidence for the Christian population of Dūš. The stratigraphy indicates that the room was subsequently reused by a pastoralist community after the relatively rapid abandonment of the settlement in the fifth century. 

The Painted House

The Painted House is situated on the western side of the dromos, ‘on the plateau between the two temples’. In the south-eastern corner of its central room, excavators uncovered a square space whose northern and western walls were painted. Unfortunately, only the lower portions of the paintings survive. Nevertheless, three figures are discernible, including one clothed in military dress. Analysis of the organic material found in the room together with its ceramic assemblage dates the occupation to the first quarter of the fourth century CE. 

Christian Presence

The presence of Building IV and the columns in Building I has been interpreted as evidence for informal Christian worship. Until the recent excavations, however, the architectural evidence for formal Christian worship at Dūš was considerably more limited, and no unequivocal church building had been identified. Cailliaud mentioned a church seen during his visit, including an elaborately painted scene of Saint George, but this structure remains unidentified. It had been tentatively associated with a structure east of the stone temple among a number of annex buildings, perhaps shops, associated with a fourth-century abandonment level based on coins minted between 363 and 395. The classification of this structure as a church remains uncertain, although painted scenes, including a human figure and a crux ansata, have been regarded as possible evidence for a Christian character and a possible connection with Cailliaud's church. 

The Christian population at Dūš appears relatively discreet, but the evidence is substantial. One of the most distinctive markers is onomastic: among the soldiers stationed at Dūš for several decades, 361 of 1,843 individuals have been identified as having supposedly ‘Christian’ names. Another important element is the papyrological record of the necrotaphs, dated to the end of the third century CE. Although these documents are significant, they have also contributed to potentially skewed interpretations of the Christian identity of those working in the necropolis. The cemeteries have consequently become an important area of investigation. 

The 2024 excavations, however, provide new architectural evidence for formal Christian worship at Dūš. In the funerary complex of the cemetery of Ayn Khalil, rooms R1–R3 are interpreted as probably constituting a church. The plan is unusual: R2 is probably a pastophorion, although it does not connect directly with the sanctuary in R1, and the building appears to have had only one pastophorion. Access was through a doorway in the south-west corner, preceded by a short entrance corridor flanked by two engaged columns. The sanctuary contained a small rectangular feature attached to its southern wall, although its function cannot currently be established. 

Necropolises

There are several necropolises north of the settlement. Their use appears to span approximately five centuries, beginning at the end of the first century BCE and continuing to the end of the fourth or beginning of the fifth century CE. A total of 95 tombs and approximately 700 individuals had previously been uncovered, providing extensive anthropological, ethnographic and cultural information about the population of the site. The documented Christian presence at Dūš and the information contained in the papyri concerning the necrotaphs have influenced the investigation of the necropolises, particularly through attempts to distinguish Christian from non-Christian graves. Prior to the recent excavations, only Tomb 1 of the necropolis ‘of the pigeonnier’ had been classified as Christian. Much of the Christian material from the necropolises nevertheless remained unpublished. The continuing investigation of these cemeteries has provided important information on the development of funerary practices, including tomb typology, mummification and the inclusion or exclusion of grave goods. 

Recent excavations and restorations

In December 2022, after an operational interruption of eight years, the IFAO mission at Dūš was relaunched under Victor Ghica within the framework of the ERC-CoG DEChriM project and the ArchRelKharga field operation. The 2022 campaign was principally devoted to restoration, conservation and the preparation of renewed archaeological research. Because the requested excavation permit was not granted, the archaeological work was limited by the MoTA restoration permit. The mission's objectives included the reconstruction of collapsed walls in the first court of the stone temple, the anastylosis of columns in the portico behind Trajan's gate, the investigation of an area along the service road to the Fort, the removal of wind-blown sand from the first court, and site enhancement. 

In the first court, the western enclosure wall had collapsed after successive phases of construction and reinforcement. Analysis of the surviving masonry indicates three construction phases extending from the second/first century BCE to the first half of the second century CE. The reconstruction undertaken in 2022 followed archival photographs, plans and documentation from earlier excavations. Approximately 30,000 mud bricks were manufactured for the restoration, using the same module as the ancient bricks. The reconstructed wall reaches 5.2 m in height and incorporates both ancient surviving elements and portions previously reconstructed in 1992. 

The 2022 campaign also restored and re-erected columns in the portico behind Trajan's gate. Two columns in the western half of the portico had collapsed together with the wall. Their bases and drums were documented and restored, while additional drums were raised on columns in the eastern half of the portico. One column was reconstructed to 3.45 m and another to 4.13 m, including the capital; the latter was originally intended to reach 6.39 m. The restored columns were subsequently consolidated. 

Limited archaeological investigation in 2022 also exposed a previously unrecorded room along the service road leading to the Fort. The room is probably to be dated between the construction of Trajan's gate in the early second century CE and the later construction of the service road and adjacent rooms. Its original western side was open towards the road; a central pillar, traces of a mezzanine and probable wooden stairs suggest that the room had an upper level. Its position beside the Fort entrance, broad opening towards the road and probable mezzanine have led to its tentative interpretation as a taberna. It was subsequently converted into a public dump containing a substantial deposit of construction debris and late Roman ceramics, including an Oasis Red Slip Ware lamp of the second half of the fourth century and material dating into the late fourth or early fifth century. The dump therefore provides additional evidence for the abandonment of parts of the settlement between the last two decades of the fourth century and the beginning of the fifth century. 

In 2024, systematic excavation resumed in the cemetery of Ayn Khalil, referred to by the previous French Mission as the ‘cemetery of the dovecote’. This cemetery is located north of the archaeological site, approximately 300 m north/north-west of Ayn al-Khalil and west of three other funerary areas associated with ancient Kysis. The surface remains comprise funerary mausolea and a larger complex of interconnected rooms. Six mausolea are visible: T1 had been excavated in 1990/91 but remained unpublished; T2, T3 and T4 were excavated in 2024; T6 was surface-cleaned and mapped because of extensive looting; and T5 was mapped after minimal cleaning. All were heavily affected by wind erosion, natural collapse, looting and partial demolition, resulting in considerable disturbance of their stratigraphy. 

The larger funerary complex comprises at least 22 interconnected rooms. Ten rooms (R1–R9 and R19) were excavated in 2024, while the remaining rooms were surface-cleaned and mapped but their upper stratigraphy and graves were not investigated. The initial core consists of R1–R5. Rooms R1–R3 are interpreted as a likely church, while R4 and R5 contain sub-floor pit graves. Subsequent construction phases expanded the complex through the addition of further funerary rooms and halls, including R7–R9 and R10–R18, while later phases connected previously separate groups of rooms. 

The excavations provide new evidence for funerary practices at Kysis. Burials were placed either in shallow sub-floor pit graves, generally 50–80 cm below the floor, or in underground vaulted funerary chambers. Pit graves generally contained a single individual, whereas vaulted chambers could contain several individuals, although these had been heavily disturbed by looting. The undisturbed pit burials were oriented east–west, with the deceased lying supine, arms folded over the pelvis and the head towards the west. The bodies were wrapped in bandages and surrounded by large quantities of salt, which sometimes solidified around the body; pit graves contained no grave goods. 

The cemetery also yielded evidence for funerary visitation and ritual activity. Funerary assemblages included used sandals, broken spindle whorls, palm-leaf objects, water jugs that had been broken or perforated, lamps, censers and baskets. Two largely complete wooden funerary beds were found above graves B4 and B5, with their legs broken off and placed upside down over the burials. Approximately 13 fragmentary beds are represented among the excavated material. These practices differ in important respects from those documented in the previously excavated northern necropolis, where similar objects had been found inside the tombs. 

The ceramic material from the 2024 excavations generally dates to the third and fourth centuries CE. Oasis Red Slip Ware includes lamps and bowls dating from the end of the third through the fourth century, while Yellow Slip Ware forms are also consistent with a late third-century or later date. Late Roman Amphora 7 indicates that the final phase of use of the cemetery lasted at least until the end of the fourth or the beginning of the fifth century CE. A coin from a disturbed layer in R8 is a nummus AE3 of Valens, minted at Antioch in 364–367. A precise chronology will require Bayesian modelling of the radiocarbon determinations. 

The Christian character of the cemetery is supported by the probable church in R1–R3 and by the discovery of a high-quality Oasis Red Slip Ware lamp bearing an incised cross. At the same time, the excavators stress that individual funerary characteristics should not automatically be treated as exclusive markers of Christianity, since doing so can produce confirmation bias. Rather, the combination of funerary characteristics, architectural evidence and explicitly Christian material in carefully analysed contexts provides the stronger basis for identifying a Christian community. 

Taken together, the new work substantially enlarges the evidence for the transformation of the settlement and its religious and funerary practices during Late Antiquity. The 2022 restoration and limited investigation provide new information concerning the architecture and abandonment of the settlement, while the 2024 excavations provide the first systematically published evidence from the cemetery of Ayn Khalil and a probable church within a funerary complex. These discoveries should therefore be incorporated into the existing interpretation of Dūš/Kysis without replacing the earlier evidence from the temple, Fort, village and northern necropolises.